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The New York Academy
of Medicine Special Collections
Malloch Room Newsletter 2
Gladys Brooks Book and Paper Conservation
Laboratory
Construction has begun on a new conservation laboratory funded by a
generous grant from the Gladys Brooks Foundation. In
recognition of the Foundation's generous support, the new facility will
be named the Gladys Brooks Book and Paper Conservation Laboratory.
Since 1985 the Library has operated a 400-square foot laboratory, an
inadequate amount of space for the staff of three full-time paper conservators
and their equipment and supplies. The new 1,800 square-foot facility,
which will be temperature-humidity controlled and have color- balanced
lighting, will be large enough to house essential new equipment and provide
proper working areas for the staff.
To increase efficiency, various parts of the room will be dedicated
to specific activities. There will be an area for wet work; an area for
"dirty" work, such as sanding, dry-cleaning paper, sawing, and leather
paring; a clean area for working with polyester film; an area with matting
and reframing equipment; and an area containing a microscope, special
lamps, light tables, and other equipment needed for media-solubility testing
and repairing torn paper. A large work table will be constructed, allowing
the staff to treat oversize charts, drawings and prints.
Several pieces of equipment essential to running a modern conservation
facility have not been purchased previously because of insufficient space.
A fume hood for the safe use of volatile chemicals will be installed,
finally enabling the conservators to use non-aqueous deacidification solutions
to treat bound volumes and water- sensitive media. Hydrocarbon solvents
will be employed to remove pressure-sensitive tape stains and rubber cement.
Methanol and other chemicals necessary to clean and treat paper can now
be used safely.
Among the paper conservation equipment planned for the laboratory are:
a leaf-casting system for the fast and precise mending of paper; a suction
table, useful for many conservation treatments, including cleaning, drying
mended leaves, and local application of chemicals; a humidification chamber,
and an ultraviolet light-bleaching set-up.
New equipment for book conservation will also be installed, including:
board shears, a guillotine, a job backer, presses, a freeze-drying unit,
and a humidification chamber, as well as smaller conservation implements
such as a steam pencil, luminescent sheets for illuminating the inside
of bound volumes under repair, and a small suction disk that can be used
inside the fume hood.
The inclusion of microcomputer hardware in the laboratory will allow
the conservators to document their work using database management, spreadsheet
and text- processing software. A laser printer will be used to produce
attractive labels for protective enclosures of conserved materials.
The new facility will be equipped to handle all necessary treatments
for the Library's paper-based materials. For the first time, the Library
will be able to participate in such cooperative activities as training
technicians and providing internships for students in conservation training
programs. It is expected that the new facility will be fully operational
by the fall of 1992 and the conservation staff will welcome visitors after
that time.
Friends of the Rare Book Room
On Tuesday, May 12th the Rare Book Room will be host to its annual Friends'
exhibition and reception. Rare books purchased through the generosity
of the Friends of the Rare Book Room, as well as other items acquired
this year, will be on display.
Friends' acquisitions include Dominique Reulin's
La Chirurgie (Paris, 1579), a surgeon's handbook written in French. A physician
from Bordeaux, Reulin (fl. 1559-1580) was a contemporary of Pare. Influenced
by Galen and other sources, his topics include the history of surgery, qualities
of a good surgeon, anatomy, surgical instruments and procedures, humoral
theory and descriptions of various drugs.
Another interesting work, L'Usage de la Glace, de la Neige et
du Froid by Pierre Barra (Lyon, 1675) describes the medicinal uses of
ice, snow and cold. It begins with a history of refrigeration methods,
and its list of therapeutic properties includes alleviation of pain and
reduction of fever. It also describes cases in which the use of cold would
be detrimental to health.
Vincenzo Malacarne (1744-1816) held professorships in anatomy,
surgery, and obstetrics at Acqui, Turin, Padua and Pavia. His writings
on comparative anatomy and surgery were widely recognized, and his work
on goiter and cretinism is considered the first important treatment of
the subject. His Nuova Esposizione della vera Struttura del Cervelletto
Umano (Turin, 1776), is among the first detailed accounts of the anatomy
of the cerebellum. This work introduced terms for the cerebellar "tonsil",
"pyramid", "lingula" and "uvula" to the medical world.
Philippe Verheyen (1648-1710) began his studies as an agriculturalist
and theologian. When an illness resulting in the amputation of a foot
rended him unfit for the clergy, he opted for a career in medicine, studying
at Louvain and Leiden. He earned professorships in anatomy and surgery,
and through his successful researches gained a reputation as an industrious
anatomist. The second edition of his Corporis Humani Anatomia (Louvain,
1706 & 1712) is greatly enlarged and improved over the original edition
of 1693. It includes a second volume, or, "supplementum", which contains
new material and an appendix, "controversia inter authorem supplementi
anatomici...", dealing with the controversy involving Tauvry and Mery
over the circulation of the blood and the "foramen ovale" in the fetus.
Both volumes contain beautiful copperplate engravings. This work replaced
Bartholinus' anatomic compendium as the preferred text, and its popularity
is reflected in the numerous editions and translations published.
Jeremy Norman and Diana Hook are the compilers of The Haskell
F. Norman Library of Science and Medicine (San Francisco, 1991), a detailed
bibliographical guide to the collections of Jeremy Norman's father, Dr.
Haskell F. Norman. Over a period of forty years, Dr. Norman collected
2,600 items, many of which are first editions of classics in science and
medicine. A psychiatrist and teacher of the history of psychiatry and
psychoanalysis, Dr. Norman began his collection in 1953 with a first edition
of Die Traumdeutung, Freud's masterwork on the interpretation of dreams.
During the years that followed, he continued collecting works of Freud
and psychiatry, also broadening his scope to include greek philosophy
and medicine. A beautifully hand-colored first edition of Vesalius' De
Humani Corporis Fabrica was a monumental acquisition. Dr. Norman also
collected extensively works of Anton Mesmer and mesmerism. The two volume
descriptive catalog is richly illustrated, with several pages of full
color plates.
"Enrico Caruso: New Historical Perspectives
on His Career, His Health and His Final Illness."
On Wednesday March 18th, 1992, more than 160 physicians, historians
and opera lovers gathered in Hosack Hall for an evening devoted to a man
generally considered the most important singer of the twentieth century:
the Italian tenor Enrico Caruso. Jointly sponsored by the Academy's
Section on Historical Medicine and by the Metropolitan Opera Archives,
the program was moderated by Robert A. Tuggle, Director of Archives of
the Metropolitan Opera Association. The meeting included three noted speakers,
an exhibit of Caruso artifacts and photographs generously loaned by the
Metropolitan Opera Archives, and a reception in the President's Gallery.
The first speaker was Andrew Farkas, Director
of Libraries, University of North Florida, who in 1990 was co- author
with Enrico Caruso Jr. of a biography of Caruso,1. Mr. Farkas' talk was
entitled "New Light on the Early Career: A Contribution to Caruso
Scholarship." He stated that although more than 20 biographies of
Caruso have appeared since his death, the definitive biography has yet
to be written. He attributed this to the wealth of material in private
hands that has not yet been shared with the public. Mr. Farkas noted that
upon being asked what quality his father possessed that made him so beloved
through the years, Enrico Caruso Jr. replied "a soul."
"What I Learned From Caruso's Doctors" was the title
of Dr. Robert W. Pritchard's talk, which focused on the
course of Caruso's final illness while in New York City. Dr. Pritchard,
Professor and Chairman of the department of Pathology at Bowman Gray School
of Medicine, Winston- Salem, North Carolina, and author of a well-known
article on the death of Caruso,2 told of the "persistent cold" that plagued
Caruso in the fall of 1920. On December 11th, during a performance of
Elisir d'Amore at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, Caruso suffered an attack
of hemoptysis. He gave his final performance at the Metropolitan Opera
in La Juive on December 24th, 1920. From that date until the end of May,
1921, when he sailed for Naples, Caruso's health rapidly deteriorated.
While staying at the Vanderbilt Hotel in New York, he was treated by many
physicians, including Dr. Samuel W. Lambert, a Fellow of the Academy and
Dr. Antonio Stella (brother of the artist Joseph Stella). Dr. Pritchard
told of the conflicting opinions of the physicians with regard to Caruso's
diagnosis and treatment, of Mrs. Dorothy Caruso's displeasure with Caruso's
personal physician, Dr. Philip Horowitz, and of the number of operations
Caruso endured, including thoracentesis and thoracotomy to drain a subphrenic
abscess. After receiving two blood transfusions that hastened his recovery,
he sailed for Italy with his family to continue his convalescence.
Dr. Adrian W. Zorgniotti, Medical Director of
the Metropolitan Opera Association, and author of an article that re-examined
Caruso's medical problems and the course of his final illness,3 discussed
the tenor's last days in Naples, from his arrival in the city of his birth
on June 10th to his death there on August 2nd. Despite attention from
many physicians, Caruso suffered numerous complications and setbacks.
He died on August 2nd, 1921, and was given a funeral of the magnitude
usually reserved for Italian royalty.
The exhibit included photographs of Caruso in some of his most
famous roles: the Duke in Rigoletto, his debut role at the Metropolitan
Opera in 1903; Samson, Don Alvaro in La Forza del Destino; and Eleazar
in La Juive, photographed by Herman Mishkin in Caruso's dressing room
during his last performance at the Metropolitan Opera on December 24th,
1920. Copies of two pages from the Metropolitan Opera pay-book from the
1920-1921 season, which listed the terms of each singer's contract and
the scheduled performances, sadly reflected Caruso's failing health: the
pages of the last weeks of his career were heavily marked in red pencil,
indicating performances scheduled but not sung. A songsheet from the early
1920s demonstrated the sense of loss felt by the world after Caruso's
death: the song was entitled "They Needed a Songbird in Heaven (So
God Took Caruso Away)."
One item in the exhibit was loaned by the American Academy
of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery Foundation. It was
a photograph and note of thanks from Enrico Caruso to Dr. Adam Politzer.
Dr. Politzer (1835-1920), played a pioneering role in the development
of otology as a distinct medical specialty. He revolutionized the treatment
of Eustachian tube dysfunction and accurately described otosclerosis.
It is believed that Caruso was treated by Dr. Politzer at his clinic in
Vienna.
References
1. Enrico Caruso, Jr. and Andrew Farkas, Enrico Caruso, My Father and
My Family Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1990.
2. Robert W. Pritchard, "The Death of Enrico Caruso," Surgery Gynecology
and Obstetrics 104: 117-120, 1959.
3. Adrian W. Zorgniotti, "Caruso and His Doctors," New York State Journal
of Medicine 91: 347-356, 1991.
"Gurdon Buck: First Photographs of Civil
War and Mid-19th Century Surgery"
The Academy's Section on Historical Medicine
began its 1992 program on January 14th with a focus on a physician who
was not only a giant in plastic and reconstructive surgery, but who made
an enormous contribution to the development of clinical photography. "Gurdon
Buck: First Photographs of Civil War and Mid-19th Century Surgery,"
was the title of the lecture given by Dr. Blair O. Rogers,
Professor of Clinical Surgery at New York University School of Medicine,
and Attending Surgeon in the Department of Plastic Surgery at Manhattan
Eye Ear and Throat Hospital. Dr. Rogers fascinated his audience of physicians,
historians, archivists, librarians and students with slides that illustrated
Dr. Buck's remarkably advanced surgical technique. Through his work on
Civil War veterans who had been maimed on the battlefield, Buck showed
his attention to esthetic surgery. As Dr. Rogers pointed out, he was the
first plastic surgeon to do secondary repair on patients who had earlier
undergone reconstructive surgery by other physicians.
Dr. Rogers discussed Buck's contributions to clinical photography.
In 1845, Buck took what is believed to be the first clinical photograph,
and used an engraving made from this photograph to illustrate the article,
"The Knee-Joint Anchylosed at a Right Angle...".1 The engraving
from this landmark paper, which furthered the development of modern orthopedics,
represents the first known published illustration from any type of medical
photograph.2 Buck made routine use of photographs to document his surgical
cases before and after operation; his casebook is an important resource
for both surgeons and historians of photography.
Following the lecture, the group adjourned to the President's
Gallery. During the reception, they viewed an exhibit on Gurdon Buck,
assembled by the Special Collec- tions department that included books
and manuscripts documenting Buck's lasting legacy.
Born in New York City in 1807, Gurdon Buck, Jr.,
graduated from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1830. After internship
at New York Hospital, he continued his studies in Paris, Berlin and Vienna
for several years. In 1837 he was appointed visiting surgeon to the New
York Hospital, a position he held until his death. He also had appointments
at St. Luke's and Presbyterian Hospitals, and at the New York Eye and
Ear Infirmary.
In addition to his achievements in the field of plastic and reconstructive
surgery, Buck also made important contributions to orthopedics, surgery
of the larynx and anatomy of the genito-urinary tract. Buck's fascia is
named after him.
Dr. Buck was a founding fellow of The New York Academy of Medicine
in 1847, and served as its Vice President from 1852 to 1856, and from
1859 to 1860. He also served on the Academy's committees on ethics and
medical education.
Gurdon Buck died in New York City in 1877. His sons, Albert H.
Buck and Francis D. Buck, became well known in New York City in their
respective fields of otology and general medicine.
The highlight of the exhibit was Buck's Contributions to Reparative
Surgery (New York, 1876), considered to be the first textbook of plastic
surgery written by an American. In addition to his ground- breaking work
with Civil War veterans, Buck describes his treatment of congenital anomalies, burns
and hemangiomas. In An Improved Method of Treating Fractures of the Thigh
(New York, 1861), Buck reported on his use of extension to obtain traction
of the thigh. This method was widely adopted for use on upper and lower
limb fractures because it fostered healing in a physiologically correct
position, was comfortable for the patient, and permitted transportation
of the patient without difficulty, a benefit especially important during
the war. This form of traction is still known as "Buck's Extension," and
was reported in the very first volume of the Bulletin of The New York Academy of Medicine.3
Buck was also known as "The Father of Intra- Laryngeal Surgery,"
because of his method of laryngofissure used for removal of cancer of
the larynx. Prior to the invention of the laryngoscope, Buck was acclaimed
for his mastery of a technique that reduced edema of the glottis in patient
with airway obstruction, thereby preventing sudden death from suffocation.
Buck documented this procedure in a paper entitled, "On The Surgical Treatment
of Morbid Growths Within The Larynx."4 In a paper read before the meeting
of the New York Medical and Surgical Society on December 3, 1842, entitled,
"Excision of the Elbow Joint in a Case of Suppuration and Caries of
the Bone," Buck stated "I am not aware that another case of this
operation has been made public in this country... Prejudice or some other
reason appears to have deterred American surgeons from resorting to it.
I desire to...secure to this valuable operation the favor it deserves,
and thus rescue some fellow creature from the deformity of an amputated
limb."5
The exhibit also included a copy of Buck's paper, "A New Feature
in the Anatomical Structure of the Genito- Urinary Organs Not Hitherto
Described," in which he identifies and describes for the first time
the fascia that now bears his name.6
References
1. Gurdon Buck, "The Knee-Joint Anchylosed at a Right Angle..." The American
Journal of the Medical Sciences. N.S. 10: 277-284, 1845.
2. Stanley Burns, "Early Medical Photography in America (1839- 1883) IV.
Early Wet-Plate Era." New York State Journal of Medicine. 79: 1937, 1979.
3. Gurdon Buck, "New Treatment For Fractures of the Femur." Bulletin of
The New York Academy of Medicine. 1: 181-188, 1860-1862.
4. Gurdon Buck, "On the Surgical Treatment of Morbid Growths Within the
Larynx." Transactions of the American Medical Association. 6: 509-535,
1853.
5. Gurdon Buck, "Excision of the Elbow Joint in a Case of Suppuration
and Caries of the Bones." (Paper delivered at the meeting of The New York
Medical and Surgical Society, New York, N.Y., December 3, 1842), p. 1.
6. Gurdon Buck, "A New Feature in the Anatomical Structure of the Genito-Urinary
Organs Not Hitherto Described." Transactions of the American Medical Association.
1: 367-371, 1848.
"Il Contagio: The Mortimer and
Anna Neinken Collection of Public Health Broadsides"
From February through April 1992, items from the Mortimer
and Anna Neinken Collection of Italian public health broadsides
were exhibited in the main reading room of the library. This outstanding
collection consists of almost 2,000 public health broadsides, all in Italian,
and dating from the 16th to 19th centuries. Issued from various cities
or city-states, predominantly in Northern Italy, they are government manifestos
instructing the public in matters relating to public health, sanitation
and hygiene. They bear grim testimony to the desperate measures taken
by Italian governments to prevent and to control the spread of the plagues
and epidemics that ravaged across Europe. Primarily from such cities as
Ferrara, Mantua, Bologna and Milan, the edicts demonstrate Italy's far-reaching
commercial ties in their prohibition of contacts with plague-infested
England, Switzerland, Austria, Albania, Belgium and Germany.
This remarkable collection is an important record of the progress
of public education by governmental authority to combat contagious disease,
and an important mass of research material for the historical study of
early public health and hygiene. Edicts such as these were the basis for
the great sanitary laws of leading nations during the nineteenth century.
The broadsides also provide fascinating insights into Italian history,
medicine, government and administration.
Included in the exhibit was a copy of Italian Broadsides Concerning
Public Health by Dr. Saul Jarcho.1 The work transcribes and summarizes
the broadsides issued from one large (Bologna) and one small city (Brescia),
thereby providing a representative sample of the collection.
In 1987-88, with a Conservation/Preservation Discretionary Grant
from New York State, the Preservation department reported on the condition
of each of the 2,001 items in the collection. Every broadside was washed,
deacidified if necessary, and repaired; items were then encapsulated in
archival polyester film, and stored in custom-made buckram portfolios
. Gold-stamped labels were made for the portfolios, which are now arranged
by city of origin.
References
1. Saul Jarcho, Italian Broadsides Concerning Public Health. Mount Kisco,
New York: Futura Publishing Co., 1986.
Travels of Vesalius' Fabrica
Members of the American Association of Anatomists
who attended the organization's 104th annual meeting at the New York Hilton
on March 13th, 1992 were treated to a special viewing of the works that
are undoubtedly among the most treasured items in Special Collections.
The first and second editions of Andreas Vesalius' De Humani Corporis
Fabrica (Basle, 1543 and 1555, respectively), were loaned to the Association
for a one day display in its Vesaliana exhibit. Anatomists from four continents
were grateful for an opportunity to examine the Fabrica, the work that
revolutionized the study of anatomy. As Special Collections and Preservation
staff members carefully turned the pages, the enthusiastic audience poured
over the beautiful illustrations done by Jan Stephan von Calcar, a student
of Titian. These woodcuts, executed and printed under Vesalius' strict
instruction, achieved anatomical accuracy and detail never before seen.
Dr. Richard Libbin, an expert on Vesalius who is a Fellow
of the Academy and who was Program Organizer for the rare book exhibit,
provided the attendees fascinating stories about the Fabrica and the man
from Brussels who created it.
In addition to the Fabrica, the Academy Library also loaned eight
works of Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852- 1934), the noted Spanish neuroanatomist
and histologist. Ramon y Cajal's pioneering studies of the cellular structure
of the central nervous system led to the discovery of structures previously
unknown. With Camillo Golgi (1844- 1926), Ramon y Cajal was awarded the
Nobel prize in 1906. This exhibit was prepared by Dr. Duane E.
Haines, Chairman of the Department of Anatomy at the University
of Mississippi Medical Center. Dr. Haines recently wrote an article on
the founders of the Journal of Comparative Neurology.1 Included
among Ramon y Cajal's works loaned were
Studien uber Nervenregeneration (Leipzig, 1908), Manual de Histologica Normal
y Tecnica Micrografica (Madrid, 1914), and Les Nouvelles Idees sur la Structure
du Systeme Nerveux... (Paris, 1894).
References
1. D.E. Haines, "The Contributors to Volume 1 (1891) of The Journal of
Comparative Neurology..." The Journal of Comparative Neurology 314: 9-33,
1991.
Frank Henry Netter, M.D. 1906-1991
In February 1992, Special Collections prepared an exhibit
commemorating the work of the late physician and medical illustrator Frank
Henry Netter. Born in New York City in 1906, Netter's earliest ambition
was to be an artist. While still in high school, Netter won a scholarship
to the National Academy of Design and later studied at the Art Students'
League. In his early career as an artist, he worked as a commercial artist.
His family opposed his choice, and strongly encouraged him to pursue a
'more serious profession.' It was then that he chose to become a physician.
Netter graduated from City College of New York and from New
York University Medical School. He found that he could best remember his
subjects by making sketches during class: "My note books were crammed
with illustrations - it was the only way I could remember things..."1
It wasn't long before Netter's sketches became well known in the medical
school, and soon professors began asking him to illustrate their publications.
Netter moonlighted as an illustrator throughout medical school and his
residency in Surgery at Bellevue Hospital.
During the Depression, Netter practiced as a surgeon in New
York, still sidelining as an illustrator. As his reputation grew, his
art work, especially that done for pharmaceutical companies, became so
lucrative that he abandoned his medical career.
On exhibit are a selection of Netter projects for pharmaceutical
companies including issues from the Pfizer Series of Anatomical and Pathological
Transparencies (New York, 1950-1954) and Armour Laboratories' The Thyroid
Gland (Chicago, 1943). Major Pathology of the Duodenum (Summit, New Jersey,
1944), an early Ciba Pharmaceutical Co. pamphlet, is one of the many illustrated
by Netter for Ciba. Recognizing the great value of Netter's illustrations,
the company signed him on for numerous projects. This began Netter's life
long association with the company. Through the years, his illustrations
appeared in hundreds of Ciba publications, treasured by generations of
medical students.
Other Ciba publications included in the exhibit are the journals
Clinical Symposia, and Clinical Symposia Annual and a monograph Control
of Pain with Saddle Block and Higher Anesthesia (Summit, New Jersey, 1948).
These works document the range of Dr. Netter's abilities, from his delicate
depiction of the anatomy of the hand to a restaurant scene showing a choking
victim.
The highlight of the exhibit is several volumes from the Ciba
Collection of Medical Illustration. This multi-volume project began in
the early 1950s as a collaborative effort by Dr. Netter and Ciba to illustrate
every major organ system of the body in a series of volumes, with each
volume devoted to all aspects of one organ system. The project, originally
estimated to take ten years, lasted over 40 years, until Dr. Netter's
death in September, 1991. Eight volumes (comprising eleven books) were
produced; the first volume appeared in 1953 and the last was published
in 1991. The eight volumes are: the Nervous System; the Reproductive System;
the Digestive System; the Endocrine System and Selected Metabolic Diseases;
the Heart; the Kidneys, Ureters, and Urinary Bladder; the Respiratory
System; and the Musculoskeletal System.
Frank Henry Netter was a Fellow of The New York Academy of
Medicine. Among his contributions to the Academy was a lecture delivered
before the Section on Historical and Cultural Medicine on January 11,
1956, entitled "Medical Illustration, its History, Significance and Practice."
This lecture appeared in the May 1957 issue of The Bulletin of The New
York Academy of Medicine.
References
1. Frank Henry Netter, "Frank Netter: the Man, the Artist, the Surgeon,"
Medical Times 109:31-33, 1981.
The Exhumation of Pierre
Toussaint
On March 6th, 1992, Dr. Arthur Goldman, forensic
odontologist with the Rockland County Medical Examiner's Office and member
of the anthropology department at Lehman College, visited Special Collections
to research the history of dentistry in New York City from 1787 to 1853.
Dr. Goldman is a member of the team of anthropologists who exhumed the
body of Pierre Toussaint from its burial site at Old Saint Patrick's Cathedral
in lower Manhattan. In his examination of Toussaint's teeth, Dr. Goldman
discovered fillings and other dental work that indicated a much more advanced
state of dentistry for its time than had been previously believed. His
research at the Academy led him to a manuscript of Isaac John Greenwood
(1795- 1865),1 son of John Greenwood (George Washington's favorite dentist),
that documented these dental procedures. Dr. Goldman's next stop was to
be the New York Public Library to examine Toussaint's papers, in an effort
to identify the dentist who had treated him.
During his visit to the Academy, Dr. Goldman presented a slide
show to the staff documenting the exhumation and examination of Toussaint's
body. He included an absorbing account of the life of this former Haitian
slave, who may become the first black citizen of the United States to
be canonized as a saint.
Born in 1766 in the French colony of Saint- Domingue, now
Haiti, Toussaint was a house servant to the wealthy Berard family. He
emigrated to New York City in 1787 with the family, who fled the revolution
in Haiti. Toussaint became a very successful hairdresser to the Colonial
women, purchased his freedom, and eventually supported his penniless former
owner. Known for his many acts of charity toward the poor and homeless
in New York, Toussaint risked his own life to nurse victims of cholera
and yellow fever epidemics. He died in 1853 at the age of 87.
After studies were completed, Toussaint's body was moved to
Saint Patrick's Cathedral, where it was entombed under the high altar.
References
1. Isaac John Greenwood, "A Treatise Upon Dentition..." (Manuscript),
New York, New York, 1828.
Staff Directory
Arthur Downing
Academy Librarian & Director of Information Resources
Ann Pasquale
Head, Special Collections
Adrienne Millon-Levin
Reference Librarian
Adriane Fabio
Rare Book Cataloger
Linda Gardin
Assistant to the Academy Librarian
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